CELTIC/GALATIAN TRACES IN YENİŞAR: THE FORTIFIED CASTLE-VILLAGE SETTLEMENT MODEL, REGIONAL TOPONYMY, AND ETYMOLOGICAL STRATA

 Mehmet Demirtaş

Abstract

This study examines the geographical, toponymic, and religious traces of the Celtic/Galatian populations present around Lake Beyşehir during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, focusing on the axis of the ancient Kaledos (Geledos) Castle and the village of Muma (Gölkonak) in the district of Yenişarbademli, Isparta. The direct and uninterrupted visual command of Kaledos Castle over Muma -a strategic advantage whose continuity is maintained today by the active Forest Fire Lookout Tower at the same site- is evaluated within the framework of the typical Celtic oppidum (fortified settlement) model, wherein Galatian nobles resided in hilltop strongholds while overseeing lowland agricultural communities. Onomastically, the connection between the name Kaledos and the ancient Gaulish tribal name Caletes, rooted in Proto-Celtic kalet- ("hard, stubbborn"), is explained through the mechanics of exonymic naming and the divine Celtic name/epithet Caletos, associated with Mercury in Roman Gaul. Furthermore, the toponym Muma is analyzed in light of a 5th-century BC Celtic stone inscription from the Abóboda stele in southern Portugal (Mumā = "foster-mother/nourishing goddess") and 18th-century Irish antiquarian records (Muma = "Sanctuary of the Great Mother"), highlighting an Interpretatio Celtica wherein the Galatians synthesized the indigenous Anatolian Cybele (Mother Goddess) cult with their native linguistic heritage. The findings demonstrate that a multi-layered Celtic/Galatian cultural heritage underlies the place-names and fortified settlement patterns of the Yenişar region.

Keywords: Galatians, Celtic Toponymy, Kaledos Castle, Muma, Yenişarbademli, Oppidum Settlement Model, Etymology and Exonyms. 

Introduction

The Galatians, a people of Indo-European origin, crossed into Anatolia via Thrace in 278 BC, initially in two tribes (Tolistobogi and Trocmi), followed shortly by a third (Tectosages). Reaching a total population of approximately 30,000, these tribes did not settle permanently for the first decade. During this period, they pillaged regions in western Anatolia divided by lot and subjected local cities to tribute. It was only after their defeat by the Syrian King Antiochus I in the "Battle of the Elephants" (268 BC) that they agreed to settle in northern Phrygia in central Anatolia under a negotiated peace. According to the results of another lot, the Tectosages settled around Ancyra (Ankara), the Trocmi east of the Kızılırmak River centered at Tavium, and the Tolistobogi in the area west and southwest of Ancyra centered at Pessinus. This territory came to be known as Galatia, meaning the "land of the Galatians".

Following the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, Roman General Manlius marched upon Galatia in 189 BC, inflicting a severe defeat on the Galatians. Under the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC), the Seleucid Kingdom lost its sovereignty north of the Taurus Mountains, and parts of Pisidia and the whole of Phrygia were granted to the Kingdom of Pergamon. Between 169 and 166 BC, the Galatians repeatedly revolted against Pergamene rule, spreading their influence southwest as far as Amblada (Seydişehir/Kızılca village) in Pisidia. Kaya (2006, p. 365) notes that following the Third Macedonian War (172-168 BC), the surroundings of Lake Beyşehir slipped from Pergamene control into Galatian dominance -a shift supported by the Soloetou inscription associated with the Galatian commander Solovettius, as well as Celtic anthroponyms found in Pisidian inscriptions. This Galatian presence persisted at least until the First Mithridatic War (90–85 BC).

In 39 BC, Marcus Antonius granted parts of Pisidia and Phrygia Paroreios to the Galatian aristocrat Amyntas with the title of "king" to secure public order and establish a buffer zone against Parthian incursions. Amyntas cleared Pisidia of brigandage, seized fertile intermontane valleys, and settled thousands of land-cultivating warriors in these territories (Lequenne, 1991, pp. 129-130). Upon Amyntas' death in 25 BC, the Kingdom of Galatia -including the region of Yenişar- was annexed to Rome as a province of the same name.

The Fortified Settlement Model (Oppidum) and Kaledos Castle

The ancient castle ruins situated on the mountains surrounding Yenişar (Mındıras, Kestel, Kaledos/Geledos, Asar, Doğdu, Ortatepe, Dede, Maltepe, Aktepe, and Çataltepe) control the region as a unified system (Karaca, 2006, pp. 22–23). This layout strongly mirrors the typical Celtic settlement model (oppidum), where Galatian nobles resided in hilltop fortresses overlooking agricultural villages, serving simultaneously as refuges for the rural population (Magie, 1950, pp. 454–455, 732).

The direct visual command that Kaledos (Geledos) Castle maintains over the lowland village of Muma perfectly embodies this Celtic pattern (Image 1). Furthermore, the presence of an active Forest Fire Lookout Tower atop Kaledos Hill today underscores the uninterrupted strategic continuity of this vantage point -from an ancient hilltop stronghold to a modern monitoring outpost- offering an unobstructed 360-degree view of both the plain and the surrounding forested ridges (Image 2).

Etymology of Kaledos / Caletes and Exonymic Naming

The name Kaledos exhibits a striking parallel with the Caletes, an ancient Celtic tribe of Gaul (in present-day Normandy). In Proto-Celtic, the root kalet- denotes "hard, stubborn, or steadfast" (Koch, 2006, pp.332-333). Classical authors recorded this tribal name as Caleti, Caletes, Galetos,Galletos and Kaletous (Falileyev, 2007).

Beyond tribal ethnonyms, this root is also attested in Celtic religious contexts. Celticist Edward Anwyl (1906, p. 39) lists Caletos ("the hard/steadfast") among the most prominent Celtic divine epithets associated with Mercury in Roman Gaul. Linguistically, while the plural tribal form Caletes translates to "the hard people," the singular masculine form Caletos / Kaledos functions as a localized place-name meaning "the steadfast/fortified castle or place."

This naming process can be understood through two sociological mechanisms of onomastics:

Endonymic Naming: The Tectosages tribe that arrived in Anatolia derived its name from the tribe of the same name in Celtica, whereas the Trocmi and Tolistobogi took their names from their leaders (Strabo; cited in Mac Congail, 2007, p. 299). It can therefore be said that these groups were not genuine tribes in their own right but were composed of individuals from various tribes, and that members of the Caletes -who were among them- named the fortress they constructed Caletos to perpetuate their own origins.

Exonymic Naming: Just as neighboring populations in Normandy designated the region after the Caletes, or as local Anatolian Turkish tradition applies descriptive names like Ceneviz Kalesi, Gavur Hamamı or Tatar Köyü, the surrounding indigenous population -aware of the Celtic garrison's identity- referred to the site as "the Castle of the Caletes" (Kaledos / Geledos). Through standard phonetic shift (k→g) in Anatolian Turkish, the name has survived locally as Geledos.

The Toponym Muma (Gölkonak) and the Mother Goddess Cult

Muma, situated in the center of the Yenişar Plain and visible from Kaledos, represents the oldest surviving village in the district. Erdoğru (2006, p. 205) indicates that non-Turkish place-names in the Sanjak of Beyşehir, such as Muma, likely date back to pre-Christian antiquity.

In Celtic languages and epigraphy, the root Muma/Mumā is directly linked to "mother," "foster-mother/nourisher," and mythologically to the "Earth Mother / Goddess of Sovereignty".

Epigraphic Evidence (Portugal / Abóboda Inscription): Celticist John T. Koch, in analyzing the Tartessian/Southwestern Celtic inscription on the Abóboda 1 stele (6th–5th century BC) from southern Portugal, identified the term Mumā as a singular feminine noun, translating it directly as "foster-mother/nourisher" (nourricière) and contextually as the "War Goddess who nourishes the warrior/bird on the battlefield" (Koch, 2012, p. 84). This inscription provides concrete ancient epigraphic proof of Mumā utilized as a divine/matronly title on stone.

Historical and Folkloric Records: The 18th-century Irish antiquarian William Beauford (1786, p. 397), in The Ancient Topography of Ireland, defined Muma (or Moma) from Old Celtic as "the place or sanctuary of the great mother" (Mam moi), associating it with sacred Druidic ritual sites.

Mythological Continuity: In early Irish literature, Muma (Mór Muman) embodies the sovereign goddess of fertility, land, and legitimacy (Beck, 2009, pp. 139,243,245; Everett-Heath, 2019). Upon their arrival in Anatolia, the Galatians deeply assimilated the worship of the Great Mother Goddess Cybele centered at Pessinus. Even if the place-name Muma contains pre-existing Anatolian (Luwian/Pisidian) phonetic substrata, it is highly plausible that the settling Galatians synthesized the local Cybele cult with their native concept of Muma ("Sanctuary of the Great Mother / Nourishing Mother") through a process of Interpretatio Celtica.

Conclusion

Historical and epigraphic data strongly suggest a Galatian/Celtic presence in and around Yenişar during the Helenistic and Roman periods. The toponym Kaledos (Geledos) can be explained through the Celtic tribal/divine root Caletes/Caletos, while the name Muma aligns linguistically and epigraphically with the Celtic concept of Mumā ("The Great Mother/Sacred Sanctuary"). Ultimately, the definitive verification of these etymological and toponymic hypotheses awaits future systematic archaeological surveys and excavations in the vicinity of Kaledos and Muma.

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Image 1: View of Muma/Gölkonak village from Kaledos/Geledos Castle (From Alaaddin Kaya’s Facebook post)

Image 2: Forest Fire Lookout Tower atop Kaledos/Geledos Hill (from Alaaddin Kaya’s Facebook post)